Erbil City

Erbil city, which is considered from the main cities of Turkmeneli or the Iraqi Turkmenistan, has taken many names during its long history, which dates back to the 6th millennium BC.1 Its silent letters remained stable, while the vowels mainly changed.

The names Urbilum and Erbila can be found in the correspondences of Shulgi, during Sumerian period. Erbilim was the name of city during the third Ur Empire.2, 3

In the writings of Babylon and Assyrian, the city called Arba illo, or Arba ilu and Ishtar Erbla. It was an important religious center including the Temple of Ishtar.4, 5

It is reported Erbira in the miniatures of the Persians. From the excavation plats, it is found that the city called Arbela since 331 BC. This name is sometimes given to the battle fought at Gaugamela, some 100 km away, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius III.6 The name Erbl was mentioned in the Chaldaen and Arab’s sources.7

Islam historians ibn al-Athir, ibn al-Kathir and ibn al-Khaldun named the city Erbl. The Old Testament mentioned Erbil by the name Erbaila.8

The name Erbil expected to have been used early in the second millennium at the time of Turkmen Seljuk Empire. According to the Turkmen writer Shakir Sabir al-Zabit the word Erbil is formed from two Turkmen words; Er, which means Soldier or brave, and bil, which means you should know. Therefore, Erbil as a compound means "you should know that he is brave".

The name Hauwler appeared in the last century and during the second Kurdish emigration stage, when Turkmeneli exposed massively to emigration of the Kurds.
History9-18

Erbil city is considered from the ancient cities of the world. The first agricultural village in the history was established in Erbil. It has been continuously inhabited for about 8000 years.

The great Empires of the human history had ruled Erbil city. Subarians and the Gutians dominated the city around 3000 BC. In 2150 BC, the city held by Kutians after defeating the Acadians. From 2050 - 1950 BC, the city ruled by the Sumerians. Kashians caught Erbil city in 1600. It became the capital of Assyrians and the temples of the Gods Ishtar and Asshur. During this period, drink water was brought by the pipes made of pot from the Bastura river to the Citadel, which the distance is about 20 km. Kingdom of Eashnunna took hold of Erbil in 1850 BC. Afterward, Hammurabi invaded it. The Hurrian-Mitannian state controlled Erbil Between the 15th - 14th century BC. The Assyrians liberated country in 1365 BC. Medes the Persians, the Greeks and the Parthians held on Erbil until 226 AD. The great Iskander conquered the city in 331 BC. Many architectural developments took place during Greek period, particularly by the king Salukis who rebuilt the Kerkuk citadel as well. Erbil was administration center during the Sassanian era. The city held by the Arabs in 642 AD and after the Qadisiyya battle.

The establishment of Turkmen in Erbil City dates back to the Abbasids period, which is increased with the entrance of Buyids with troops formed mainly from the Azerbaijanis Turkmen in 945. With the establishment of great Seljuk Empire and Iraqi Seljuk state increased the number of Turkmen in northern Iraq.

The city annexed to the Atabegian’s (Zangids) reign in Mosul in 1127. In 1144 Zeynuddin Ali Küçük founded the independent Erbil Atabegian’s state. During this period Erbil city got the only independent status in the history. Afterwards, this city remained keeping its power under the rule of Mosul Atabegian’s until 1232. At this period, the constructional, cultural and social flourishing took place.19, 20 During his sovereignty, Muzaffaraddin Gokburu constructed several buildings in the city, which stands until now. The Broken minaret and Qaysseria bazaar, which were built by hem, is considered from the important historical monuments. He conquered the small states in the region and widened his principality. The geographical term Shehrezur, which was extended from the Greater Zab river to the boundaries of Suleymaniyya governorate and included also the present Tavuk district and Dohuk governorate, was added to the land of Erbil Atabegs. At the time of Gokburu, Muzaffereddin University (madrasahs) was founded.

In 1232 Erbil fell under the control of the Kipchak Turkmen.21, 22 In 1258 AD and after a one yearlong siege, the Moguls invaded the city, and their occupation continued until 1410 AD. Jalayirids ruled Erbil from 1337, which were defeated by Timur in 1401. Between 1410 and 1508, the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu Turkmen states alternated in rule of the city.23, 24

In 1501, Shah Ýsmail managed to get the Turkmen groups of Ustaçlý, Rumlu, Musullu, Tekeli, Bayburtlu, Karadaðlý, Dulkadýrlý, Karamanlý, Varsak and Avþar on his side and founded Safavids state. In 1508, he annexed Erbil city to Safavids state. 25, 26. 27, 28

In 1534 the Ottoman Sultan Suleyman Magnificent completed the conquest of the north and central Iraq. In the first half of the 19th century, Erbil city was administratively related to Baghdad province. In 1870, the city annexed to the Shehrezur Sanjak (district), which was part of the independent Mosul wilayet (province).25

In 1879 Mosul wilayet was separated from Baghdad wilayet. Then Erbil became a town within the Sanjaq (province) of Sharazur in the Mosul wilayet. 29

The Ottomans ruled Iraq until 1918; later on the British army controlled the city. On November 11, 1918 the governorate of Erbil was established, and both districts of Köy Sanjak and Rawanduz and sub-district Qush Tepe were annexed to it. In 1923, Ahmed Efendi Ottoman was appointed as the first governor of the city.

Erbil City is located on the center of a hill called Erbil plain, which is 414 meter higher than the sea level. Erbil city is 87 Kms to the South East of the city of Mosul, 96 Kms to the North of Kerkuk City. It is located on latitude 36.11, longtitude 42.2.

At the west of the city located Qara Chog mountains chain, which continuous toward the north east of the city. The highest top of this series is 874,5 and 3000 meters in the west and east, respectively. Kandinawah plain located at the south of the city, which is separated from the Erbil plain by Zurga Zirau hills. Toward the east of the city, the plain of Bastura and Dardawan Mountains valleys, which the height is 1475 meters, are present. At the north of the city Birmam and Sefin mountains are present; the height of these mountains is about 1475 meters.

The boundaries of Erbil governorate are Mosul and Duhok governorates at the west and north, Iran and Suleymaniyya at the east, Kerkuk governorate at the south.

English governor of the Erbil district in 1920 described Erbil City; “Erbil, with its battlemented heights and its great solitary minaret presents an unique appearance. The upper town, built on a huge circular mound commends the surrounding plain like a vast fort, the outer walls being lofty and containing only small irregular windows like loopholes, except where some of the rich aghast have constructed balconies” “ the streets within are very rough and narrow, and cannot be used for wheeled traffic” “the lower town clusters round the south and east sides of the mound, here is the bazaar”. 30

Erbil city is well known with its fertile lands and productive plains. Shamamik, which is rich in water sources, is consistently fertile land. Kandinawah soil is as fertile as that of shamamik. The Erbil plain is a great expanse stretches about 50 miles from the greater to the lesser Zab, with a width of some 25 miles from Zurga Ziraw to the foothills proper. The main southern portion of the plain, which was occupied by Kurdish Diazi tribes in the 19th century, was described by the English governor in 1920 as follows: “In spring the traveler may stand on one of the ancient mounds which dots its surface and, except for the white roads, as far as he can see the whole country is under cultivation, either green with the standing crops or ploughed ready for the autumn sowing”. 31

Citadels are found almost in all big cities of the Iraqi Turkmenstan. Erbil citadel, which is considered the symbol of Erbil city, is ancient as the city of Erbil. In the early 19th century, it was forming the whole Erbil city. It is 26 meters above the surrounding ground level and it has an area of 102,000 square meters. Atabegs constructed a tunnel-contained rampart around the citadel.

The citadel constitutes 3 neighborhoods: Top hane, Saray and Tekke. It has two major and one minor gate. The southern entrance is called Old Entrance passing to the bazaar. The northern entrance is called New Entrance or Ahmet Aga Entrance passing in under the old Saray.


When the Erbil city was formed only from the Citadel, these entrances had an iron doors32 to protect the city from Kurdish incursions to which all the Turkmen villages on the Kurdish line were repeatedly subjected.33 The minor entrance is uncovered sandy path, which is located in the Saray neighborhood and guides to the Hanaka neighborhood behind the New Museum. At the time being, there are 5 mosques, two religious abodes and one bath in the citadel. The Grand mosque, which is considered from the oldest mosques in the Erbil City, was built in a Turkish fashion.

The ancient citadel is known with its Turkmen-style houses mistreated. Up to the beginning of this century it served as a cultural and administrative center, where elegant buildings stood and prosperous Turkmen families lived. Many buildings are either structurally unsound or collapsing outright.

Erbil region is rich in water, the ground formed from a hilly land, which the height of the undulating increases gradually towards the East north, where high mountains are formed. There are many plains at the south and west of the Erbil governorate. The geological structure of the Erbil plain is suitable for artesian water. Boring of heavy rainfall water into the lower beds large supplies of water would be trapped, and rise to the surface under their own pressure. The main feature of the Erbil district is the kehriz.

The weather of the Erbil city is very hot mainly for only one month. It rain from November to May. The heavier rain fall in the later half of December and all January. The winter is mild and snow falls rarely. Hot weather experienced from July to August.

The country is poor mineralogical, possessing no known veins of valuable ore. Oil oozes out in some place on the banks of the Greater Zab, but the wells are not properly worked. 34

Population

The official governmental census was achieved for the first time in Iraq in the 1930s. Thereafter, the censuses organized every 10 years and in the seventh year of each decade. The first few censuses were achieved in primary manners. The censuses have been relatively better organized in the second half of the last century. Due to the sever conflicts between the nationalities and religious sects, the composition of Iraqi community has been never honestly estimated.

The origin of Erbil Turkmen is not Ottoman, but it is generally inferred that it must be descended from a line of colonies settled by the Seljuks. Large number of Azerbaijan Turkmen had settled in Erbil city by Nadir Shah in 1732. The grace and elegance of some Erbil Turkmen approximate more nearly to the Azerbaijanis, but being all from pure Sunnite sect is against this theory. 35

In spite of the large differences between the sources, the majority reported that the population of Erbil city (Table 1) was between 4000 and 6000 at the second half of the 19th century. 36, 37

Al-Munshi al-Baghdadi visited Erbil city in 1822 and estimated the total number of houses as 5 thousands. He considered the houses of citadel 1000. If the average family number of one house considered 5 souls, then the population of Erbil city can be predicted to be 25,000.38, 39

Willima R. Hay mentioned that the chief town in the area was Erbil city and numbered to 14,000 souls. 40

 

البداية في كركوك

Erbil City in 1920

Table 1.
The population of Erbil city during the 19th and 20th century
 

Date

Population of Erbil City

1837

4,500 - 5,000

1847

5,000 - 6,000

1916

5,000 - 10,000

Table 2
The population of Erbil Governorate during the 19th and 20th century 41
 

Date

Population of Erbil Governorate

1947

27,036

1957

39,913

1965

90,956

1970

101,779

1977

193,588

1980

209,000

1990s

800,000



 

Kurdish emigration

The term Erbilli, which mean the inhabitant of Erbil City, has been used until now as an alternative to the Turkmen in Erbil, also by the Kurds.

The exposure of Erbil city to the huge emigration waves can be easily concluded from the population growth of the city (Table 2).

 

H. Batatu reported in his book called The old social classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: “other Turkmen towns, such as Erbil, had undergone a similar process (Kurdish emigration)” 42 Both Batatu and McDowel reported: “In the district of Erbil, no fewer than 45 of 75 villages were owned by one or other Erbil notables who were mostly Turkmen”. 43, 44

W. R. Hay mentioned in his book called Two Years in Kurdistan 1918 - 1920: “One quarter of the Erbil is purely Kurdish, and in the rest the lower classes resemble Kurds in appearance and dressings. All can speak Kurdish fluently, but the language of their homes is Turkmen. In the upper town, which contains 6,000 inhabitants, the purest Turkmen element is found”. 45

In page 19 of the same book Hay reported: “It is reported that less than a century ago trees and shrubs were plentiful on the slopes of Qara Choq Dagh; when the Kurds came, however, they were quickly taken for fire woods and no trace of them now remains”. In the page 21, he reported that the Bastura Chai and the Dardawan Dagh bound Erbil plain along its northeastern side. Bastura Chai marks the southwestern border of the Rawanduz district, and according to the people of Erbil it is the boundary between Iraq and Kurdistan.

Dizai tribe descended from the hills about 3 centuries ago, and occupied a few villages round Qush Tappah. In the middle half of the 19th century they started to expand, and rapidly covered the whole country up to Tigris. In the late 1920s, they constitute one third of the Erbil district population. 46

In the last century of Ottoman’s era, and when the Kurds started to leave their traditional living in the Turkey-Iran-Iraq triangle, the fertile Erbil plains were from the first lands subjected to the Kurdish emigration.

Huge growth of the Kerkuk economy after industrialization of the oil production as well improved the economic states of the surrounding regions. The Kurdish emigration to the fertile and oil rich Turkmen lands, mainly to Erbil and Kerkuk districts, grew in frequency and number.

The third stage of Kurdish emigration started with their uprising in 1961. Erbil city met the largest pieces of massive Kurdish emigration waves, which occurred in the following periods:

 

  1. In the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the Iraqi government paid amazing sum of money to the Kurdish Agas to appropriate vast lands in the east and eastern north of the Iraq. After selling their lands, the Kurds from Suruci, Haylani and Hoshnaw tribes evacuated hundreds of villages and tens of sub-districts and moved mainly to the Erbil City and its western towns.
     

  2. In the Late 1980s, the Iraqi government demolished almost all the villages of Kerkuk, Suleymaniyya, Erbil and Duhuk governorate. Hunderds of thousands of Kurds from the demolished villages of the latter 3 governorates moved toward the main Cities. Erbil received the great part of these people.
     

  3. The racist policy of the Kurdish regional government to Kurdisize Erbil city lead to the huge increase of the population of Erbil city. At the same time the Turkmen were forced to deport from the city.

     

In the course of time, the large numbers of new settlers decreased the Turkmen concentration in this governorate.

It appears from the writings of many travelers that Erbil City was constituted only from the citadel at the first half of the 19th century. The Old Arab neighborhood seems to be the earliest expansion of Erbil city to out of the citadel. 47

By the end of second decade of the latter century (1920s), which can be considered the end of the first Kurdish emigration stage, the city expanded toward the south and the west. Three another neighborhoods were built: Khanaka, Tajil and New Arab neighborhoods. In the second stage of Kurdish, emigration, which lengthened from 1920s to the Kurdish uprising in 1960s the number of Kurdish settlers increased in the city. Tayrawa (al-Mustawfi), Seydawa, Sheyhulla and Sadunawa neighborhoods were created in the north and east of the city. Large numbers of the quarters were constructed in the city (Table 3) after 1950s when massive departures of the Kurds from their towns in the Turkey-Iran-Iraq triangle took place. They fled from the battlefield toward the south and the west.

Table 3
Expansion of Erbil City in the second half of the 20th century

Decades

Newly established neighbourhoods

1960s

Azadi and Iskan

1970s

Beste Piyaze, Kawani, Carpet fabric quarter, Setakan, Goran, Dairy fabric quarter,
Badawa, Belashawa Zanyari and Su Tenkisi

1980s

Hay al-Shurta, Shorosh, Seba Nisan, Poultry Houses, Cigarette fabric houses,
Aradi al-Melali wel Awkaf, Brayeti, Hay al-Jeysh al-Shabi, Hay al-thubbat and Hay al-Muhendisin

1990s

Quarter 92 Quarter 94 Quarter 96

The field studies and social survey, which was performed by the planning directorate in 1975, considered the percentage of Kurdish emigrant in Erbil city as 17%.41

Western powers helped the Kurds to establish the Kurdish Regional Government based in Erbil city in northern Iraq, which is virtually independent from Baghdad. In the meantime, they ignored the rights of Erbil's Turkmen population, which makes half of the city and accounts for 13% of all the Turkmen in Iraq, by placing them under the mercy of the Kurdish Regional Government.

Kurdistan's Democratic Party has been the governing authority in Erbil City since August 1996 when Saddam Hussein sent his army to Erbil to oust their rival, the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, and to destroy the opposition headquarters, specifically the Turkmen. Hundreds of renowned individuals where executed. Since then, Kurdistan's Democratic Party has adopted similar methods for oppression and assimilation of the Turkmen, which Saddam practices in his domain. Clashes and frictions are frequent between the KDP forces and the Iraqi Turkmen Front.

The historical milestone of Erbil city:

I. Landmarks

A. Citadel (see above).

B. The Muzaffariyya Minaret: It is a great brick minaret about 110 ft. high and 12 ft. in diameter at the base stands in the fields of western edge of the town. The minaret stands on an octagonal base, the structure is made of brick masonry with gypsum. It has two doorways each leading to a staircase, which goes up helically inside the minaret in opposite direction. Its top was damaged leaving an uneven stump. Traces remain of brightly colored tiles and there is a certain amount of rough ornament. It is eaten a way at the base and will eventually fall if efforts are not made to preserve it. No other visible trace exists of the mosque of which it must have once formed part. It is a ruminant of the Madrasah (university), which was built by the Atabegian era by Muzaffaraddin Gokburu. There located a tomb and one of the biggest graveyards of Erbil city, which have the same name.

C. Karinçağa Mond: This archaeological site lies in the center of Erbil City opposite to the Erbil municipality house. The excavations explored ruminants of ancient houses, temples and many graves. The analysis of pottery pieces, clay statuettes, necklaces, precious stones and flat seals dated the history of this site back to 5th and 4th millennium BC.

D. The Qaysaria-Bazaar: It is located at the south of the Erbil citadel. M. Gokburu, built quarter Bazaar in the 12th century. It is rebuilt in the 19th century. Willima R. Hay portrayed Erbil Bazaar as an extensive containing 2 fine arcades, in good repair and two others in ruins, but likely soon to be built. The quarter Bazaar of Erbil City is all situated in one area in the middle of the city south of the citadel. Its architecture is similar to the traditional Turkish Bazaars. Qaysaria-Bazaar includes many sections: Jewelers, Shoemakers, Carpenters, Spices, Tinsmith, Cloth merchants and Butchers.

II. Important catacombs

A. In the citadel:

  1. Sheikh Ibrahim al-Geylani
     
  2. Sheikh Habib al-Naj’jar.
     
  3. Sheikh Abdul-Qadir.
     
  4. Sheikh Sufi Qoja.
     
  5. Qirqlar or the forty People
     

B. Out of citadel:
 

  1. Prophet Uzer tomb and graveyard: It is situated opposite to the mosque of Sheikh-Choli.
     
  2. Sultan Muzaffaraddin: It is situated near the building of the governorate of Erbil City opposite to the cinema Salahaddin. This tomb is attributed to abu-Said Kokburu, choice name of the glorified leader M. Kokburu.
     
  3. The site of the Hand: It is a tomb, mosque, religious abode and graveyard located in Hanaka neighborhood. This hand-trace is attributed to the Caliph Ali Ibn abi-Talib. The site was a mosque in the Atabegian era. It is believed that there is a rock in that place on which there is a human hand-trace. The site faces the mosque of Sheikh Mustafa al-Naqshabandi.
    Imam Mohammed: It is located in a graveyard in Arab neighborhood, opposite to the Hac Huseyin mosque. This tomb attributed to Imam Mohammed al-Huseyni, nearby the Muzaffariyya minaret is present.
     
  4. Imam Tajil tomb and graveyard: It is situated in the Tajil quarter. This imam was a righteous person and a famous Sufi leader. He may be lived at the time of Safavids. The graveyard related to the large Erbil family Kureciler.
     
  5. Sheikh Mohammed al-Khurasani: A Sufi leader from the time of Safavids. It is situated near the park of Gulkent, opposite to the Çirag graveyard behind the mayor house.
     
  6. Sheikh Mohammed: It is situated in the graveyard opposite to the tomb of Sheikh Mohammad al-Khurasani.
     
  7. The tomb of Siti-Imami (Lady Imam): this dates back to the Sassanian era. She was an imperative religious lady. It is located next to the Erbil benzene station.
     
  8. Sheikh A. H. al-Siddiq (Sheikh-Allah): It is situated in a quarter of Hanaka neighborhood. He was called Kutb al-Madar, which means Head of Sufis. It is said that he died in 1229 of Hijra, i.e., 1843 AD, while others argued and said that he died in 1590 AD.
     
  9. Sheikh M. T. M. O. al-Erbili al-Naqshaband:, He is known as Sheikh-Choli. He was a successor of Sheikh Othman Sirajuddin. He died in 1308 AH, i.e., 1891 AD. His mausoleum is the most famous one in Erbil City.
     
  10. Mulla Haydar II: he died in 1700 AD. It is situated behind the mosque of Sheikh-Allah. This tomb is renovated in 1985.
     
  11. Mullah Abi-Bakir II: It is next to the tomb of Mullah Haydar, his contemporary. He was a well-known religious scientist who died in 1725 AD.
     
  12. Sheikh Abi-Bakir: the counselor of the Naqshabandi doctrine, and a successor of Sheikh Othman Sirajuddin. He died in 1329 AH, i.e., 1911 AD, and his tomb situated in Hanaka quarter
     

III. Historical mosques

A. The Grand Mosque of citadel: It is the oldest mosque in Erbil City, located in the center of citadel opposite to the historical Citadel bath. Originally, it might have been a church. It was renovated many times.
B. Sheikh-Allah Mosque: This mosque was, originally, a religious abode (Takia) of the Kadiri doctrine. It was renovated in the 1880 AD, and in the 1960s.

C. The mosques in the Bazaar:

  1. The Grand Mosque: A large ancient mosque which have two entrances at the grocery and tinsmith sections of the Bazaar. There are three beg halls for the mornings. It dates back to the 19th century. It was rebuilt after the World War.
     
  2. Hac Nuri mosque at the entrance of tinsmith’s section.
     
  3. Neccarin mosque at the entrance of carpenter section.

D. The Khalidiya mosque: A mosque situated in Hanaka quarter, nearby of flea market. It is attributed to a counseller of al-Naqshabandi sect. This mosque was build at the beginning of the 19th century.

E. Sheikh-Choli mosque and graveyard: It is situated in al-Arab quarter. It was built in1883 AD. Choli mosque is a large mosque in which there are two big halls for mornings.

F. al-Mufti Mosque: It is attributed to Mulla Abdurrahman, the Mufti of Erbil City, in the last Ottoman era. He succeeded his father Mulla Isaac in 1876 AD. The mosque is situated in Iskan quarter. (A mufti is an official expounder of Islamic Law).

G. Mullah Mohammed Derabrushi which called also Piriþin al-Arab quarter.

H. Hac Mahmut Allaf mosque, which is located near the Erbil governorate building.

I. Haji Mawlud al-Erbili: which has a brickwork minaret.

J. Awkaf mosque located in Tayrawa neighborhood.

K. Hasan Bezzaz mosque located behind the bank.

L. Saylo mosque on the road to Mosul.

IV. Historical Churches

A. St. George’s church: It is situated in Shorish quarter in Erbil City. It was built in 1985.

B. The Chaldeans Church: which is located in al-Arab quarter. This church was, originally, a house transformed to a church.

V. Museums:

A. The Civilization Museum: the Directorate General of Antiquities supervises it. This historical houses relic from different pre-historic and historic eras.

B. The Folkloric Museum: It is an interesting museum in the citadel housing exhibits representing the old heritage of the people of Erbil, i.e., crafts, handicrafts, folk tools and domestic utensil etc.

VI. Factories:

A. Textile
B. Cigarettes
C. Handmade Carpets
D. Marble
E. The Carpentry Workshop
F. Dairy
G. Fodder
H. Asphalt
I. Bricks

References
  1. Society for Syrian Studies, Research and Development (SSSRD)
     
  2. Jona Lendering, LIVIUS, Ancient Assyria
     
  3. Durty Makkary, Mudun al-Irak al-Kadime, transulation Yusuf Yakub Makuty, Baghdad 1952, page 149.
     
  4. Sanan Ahmnet Aga Kassab,"Erbil ve Erbilli " -Erbil and Erbilis- Erbil 1999, p. 5.
     
  5. Encarta encyclopedia winkler prins, version 2002, title “Erbil”.
     
  6. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2001
     
  7. Zubeyr Bilal, “Min Aalam al-Muslimin: Ibn Khilkan”, al-Umma Print huose, Baghdad 1979.
     
  8. Sanan Ahmnet Aga Kassab,"Erbil ve Erbilli ", p 7.
     
  9. “Erbil during 11 Maart decleration”, Sabah print huose, al-Hilla 1972.
     
  10. Taha Baki, Mukaddima fi Tarih al-Hadharat al-Kadime”, Baghdad 1952.
     
  11. Zubeyr Bilal, “Min Aalam al-Muslimin: Ibn Khilkan”, al-Umma Print huose, Baghdad 1979.
     
  12. Abdul al-Baki Abdu al-Jabbar, “al-Tejdid al-Hadari li Kalat Erbil”,.
     
  13. Suleyman al-Ssaig, “Tarih al-Mosul”, Cairo 1933.
     
  14. Shakir Sabir al-Zabit, “Mujaz Tarih al-Turkman”.
     
  15. Suphi Saatçi, "Tarihi Gelişme İçinde Irak'ta Türk Varlığı" -The Historical development of Turk’s presence in Iraq- ,Istanbul Research Center Publication, Istanbul 1996.
     
  16. Ziyad Köpürlü, "Turkish Presence in Iraq", By Ornek Limited Company, Ankara 1996.
     
  17. Aziz Samanci, Al-Tarikh al-Siyasi li-Turkman al-Iraq" -The Political History of Iraqi Turkmen- El-Saki Print House, First Edition, Beirut 1999.
     
  18. "Kardaşlık" -The Brotherhood- Publication of Kerkuk Foundation, Istanbul.
     
  19. “Encyclopedia Britannica” 1992, volume ?, page 894.
     
  20. Suphi Saatçi, "Tarihi Gelişme İçinde Irak'ta Türk Varlığı" -The Historical development of Turk’s presence in Iraq- p 66.
     
  21. Ibid, p 72.
     
  22. "Turkic Kipchaks of Medieval Eurasia"
     
  23. “Encyclopedia Britannica” 1992, volume 21, page 984.
     
  24. Aziz Samanci, Al-Tarikh al-Siyasi li-Turkman al-Iraq" -The Political History of Iraqi Turkmen- p 44.
     
  25. “Encyclopedia Britannica” 1992, volume 21, page 985.
     
  26. An Outline of Turkish History from its Inception to 1923
     
  27. Aziz Samanci, Al-Tarikh al-Siyasi li-Turkman al-Iraq" -The Political History of Iraqi Turkmen- p 53.
     
  28. Suphi Saatçi, "Tarihi Gelişme İçinde Irak'ta Türk Varlığı" -The Historical development of Turk’s presence in Iraq- p 86.
     
  29. “Encyclopedia Britannica” 1992, volume 21, page 988.
     
  30. William R. Hay, “Two Years in Kurdistan 1918 – 1920”, (William Clowes and Sons, Limited, London and Beccles 1921), p. 117.
     
  31. Ibdi, p 20.
     
  32. Nefi Demirci, "Dünden bu Güne Kerkuk" -Kerkuk from the Past until Now- , Dizgi Pres house, Istanbul 1990, p. 12.
     
  33. Claudius James Rich, “Residence in Koordistan”,(Printed by Anton Hain KG, Meisenheim/Glan, West Germany; Republished in 1972 by Gregg International Limited Westmead, Farnborough, Hants, England 1972), p. 45-46.
     
  34. William R. Hay, “Two Years in Kurdistan 1918 – 1920”, p. page 24.
     
  35. Ibdi, p 81 - 82.
     
  36. Zubeyr Bilal, “Min Aalam al-Muslimin: Ibn Khilkan”, al-Umma Print huose, Baghdad 1979, p 368.
     
  37. Abdul al-Baki Abdu al-Jabbar, “al-Tejdid al-Hadari li Kalat Erbil”, p 73.
     
  38. Abbas al-Azzawi, “Rihlat al-Munshi al-Bagdadi”. Baghdad 1948, p 76 – 77.
     
  39. Abdul al-Baki Abdu al-Jabbar, “al-Tejdid al-Hadari li Kalat Erbil”, p 72.
     
  40. William R. Hay, “Two Years in Kurdistan 1918 – 1920”, p. 27.
     
  41. Sanan Ahmnet Aga Kassab,"Erbil ve Erbilli " -Erbil and Erbilis- p 18.
     
  42. Hanna Batatu, “The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq”, p. 913.
     
  43. Ibid, p. 37.
     
  44. David McDowall, “A Modern History of the Kurds”, p. 297.
     
  45. William R. Hay, “Two Years in Kurdistan 1918 – 1920”, p. 81.
     
  46. Ibid, p. 77.
     
  47. Sanan Ahmnet Aga Kassab,"Erbil ve Erbilli " -Erbil and Erbilis-, p 17.

 

Source: KERKUK CITY WEB SITE